Types of Decision Making

Likewise problems, decision-making have also various types. Some decisions require great contemplation, prudence and wisdom. It is also possible that such type of decisions is to be faced by the administrator once in life time. Some decisions do not require deep thinking and they are settled very easily.

Decision-making are of two kinds

• Programmed decision
• Non-programmed decision

Programmed decision

A decision made when the situation occurs frequently enough or is sufficiently well-structured to be resolved by applying predetermined decision rules.

An administrator does such type of decision in the situation where rules and regulations are already existed to address these problems. These decisions are done repeatedly and they are routine matters. The situation is very clear before the administrator. This type of situation requires future policy formation and leads to enact new rules and regulations. Policy is the principle, which considered as the guiding line of action. For the implementation of this policy rules and procedures are formed. For example, the rule is passed that the primary education is a compulsion for children who are five years old is “rule” in true sense. The procedure is also determined which explains how the policy will be enforced in practice i.e. children’s name, date of birth, income of parents. In this regard parents give oath for admission. It is a procedure. Either the school Urdu as medium of instruction or English as medium, it will be decided on policy level. It means, in such decision rules, policy and procedures will be observed. We also call it SOP (Standing Order Procedure).

Non-programmed decision

A decision made in a situation where pre-determined decision rules cannot be applied because the situation is less structured occurs rarely, or in unique.

This includes hard decisions which are made by high authorities. For example, some private institutions decide that students should be studied in their organization without fees on certain terms and conditions. For this, the question is addressed that from where do the resources be generates? How does the salary be arranged for the teacher? Such type of decision can only be made by owners of the school despite the principal or teachers.

Conditions of decision making

The administrator has to face different problems during decision making process. In some cases he has information; on some he has vague information or absence of policies, rules and procedures. Already established rules are ineffective to solve this problem. He is not certain about the solution. In this case four conditions are essential to keep in mind.

Certainty

Condition of certainty is a situation in which the manager has complete information about the problem, the alternative, and the consequences of a decision on the future.

Therefore, such types of decisions are taken easily and effectively. But in some cases circumstances can be changed entirely in future. In these decisions administrator follow rules, procedures and policy or his discretionary powers creatively without any pressure and time frame.

Risk

Condition of risk, a situation in which the manager understands the problem and the alternatives and has only enough information to estimate the probability that the available alternatives will lead to desired outcome.

Manager or head keeping in view the possibilities and takes decision and the whole team follow the decision and work but a risk remains such as one subject if remains weak will lead the failure in result as a whole in class. It is necessary for an educational head to avoid such risks and try to produce better results.

Uncertainty

Uncertainty means ambiguity, vagueness and lack of clarity. It is condition, a situation in which the manager understands the problem but has incomplete information about the alternatives and the probably consequences of each alternative.

Thus manager has to use his own reason, logic or intuition to reach on some decision in this uncertain condition. He himself remains unclear about the results. It is a complex and challenging situation that require natural leadership qualities.

Ambiguity

Ambiguity is a situation in which the manager has little or no information about the problem, the alternatives or the consequences of each alternative.

Manager has to make his own new set up and design a unique strategy to get way out of the problem. This entire situation requires great leadership qualities and supreme confidence of the leader. The more he is knowledgeable and experienced the more he will breed in himself the resolution of solving problems.  

 Models of decision making

Classical model

In this model the outlook is objective and rationale. Decisions are made with complete knowledge and information. Alternative models are scrutinized keenly and explained in detail. All the objectives are clear and visible. Everything is in black and white. But the problem is such rationale and logical path cannot be followed accurately. In real life situation nobody knows what will happen. To decide and launch a strategy is our power, but what would be the consequences nobody can predict. Developed countries have reached at the point of knowledge and technology and strategies that they can assume and predict human behavior to possible extent and use in problem solving.

Administrative model

In this model, managers cannot decide, in rational and logical way. This model is also termed as “Bounded Rationality”. According to which decisions of decision maker depends upon his own knowledge and time. Therefore, usually due to lack of knowledge and information it remains imperfect and causes a loss to organization. It happens due to lack of resources and time which hamper availability of information. If complete information is available, the inexperienced decision maker will not be able to take right decisions.

Sometimes alternatives are ignored without assessing their true worth, its details and consequences. All this happens due to lack of intelligence and memory.

Barriers on decision making

There are some barriers which hinders the decision making process. A manager should avoid from them. They are as follows:

1. Incomplete information
2. Incomplete identification of the problem
3. No preparation of list on alternatives.
4. Decisions based on biases
5. Head of school sticks on the decision after revealing its weaknesses during implementation
6. To change the existing situation despite its positive results
7. To make defense of some issue illogically and without rational

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Types of Problems

Crisis problem

A crisis problem is a “situation that urgently requires an immediate decision.” In this position head teacher perceives that the goodwill of the organization is at the stake and it is necessary to find the solution of the crisis as early as possible. For example, in a school two groups kick the row which threaten to the lives of the teachers and students, administrator will call the police, seeks parent’s cooperation or close the school with the consent of District or Provincial administration. This situation also can develop during natural calamity, such as storm, heavy rain, land-sliding, riots in the city, terrorism, fire, war etc.

Non-crisis problem

Non crisis problem is a problem requires a decision but less urgently than a crisis problem. This situation demands less urgent attention but not instant solution. Crisis problem, deal with urgent event in reactionary way while non-crisis problem deals with imminent events in a conscious way. For example, if government provides computer to schools but skilled faculty is not available. School administration will train their own faculty member to run the computer lab, or they will arrange provisionally a teacher by means of “Management Community”. Or find a volunteer teacher from the community. But for this school administration the element of time frame is flexible.

Opportunity problem

Opportunity problem is a situation that can be dealt with in a way that has a positive effect on the organization and its performance. In this situation the solution of the problem leads to some benefit in the form of outcome. In this situation head of organization does not feel any pressure or he feels some difficulties seeing it. This problem leads to creative type of solution. For example, head and teachers jointly decide to keep the school clean or what steps can be taken for quality education. In this regard, library books increase in number, discipline improvement or equip the science laboratories with modern instruments. The solution of these problems leads to raising the goodwill of the school but it takes time.

Well structured problem

It is straight forward, familiar, easily defined problem. For example, a student’s name is struck off due to absentees; his re-admission is his legal right. Therefore, administrator has no pressure to bear upon.

Less structured problem

It is a new problem in which information is ambiguous or incomplete, for example, after establishment a computer lab, some computer virus invades the computer while administrator in untrained in computer. This will be a new and unique problem for him. He has to contact with various teachers, computer experts, make an estimate of the loss, wasted records will renew by hard copies of the record, again install windows, and maintain it and check the performance of the laboratory.

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What is Personal Development

These are the important principles for self development.

Self-awareness

Self-awareness is a pre-requisite for the character. Leader must assess his intellectual professional interests and needs. His interests must revolve round his educational institution and professional needs. He should be aware that what are his potentials? Where his strengths lie is? What are his drawbacks? He thinks over his limitation and powers that how much tough time he can give to his own self. How much tolerance he has? He keeps in mind the social values, welfare of the society. One administrator comments that truth is my strength.

Self-advocacy

The beneficiaries of status quo or chaos do not bear the change. At this juncture, he has to explain his behavior, position and task before high officials, community and teachers, or stakeholders. For this purpose he takes the help of results which he shows in curriculum, extra-curriculum and co-curriculum activities. He expresses his and organization’s needs, his future field of priorities, and ambitions, make his own as well as his high authorities with prestige. He shows his scarification of self-rights.

Self-confidence

Self-confidence is the most vital quality of educational leader. He must have a confidence of his own that he is able to get determined objectives or his department, nation, society and above all young generation. If this conviction, confidence is raised above to the level of faith with God fearing, he will certainly provide best people to society. This confidence is the source of his success.

Decision making

Decision making is a complex skill. For this purpose we need planning, application of planning. He should not consider himself that his logic has final authority. He should take help from the past. Design best type of planning and choose best plans, it will lead him surely to success. Decision making surely plays a fundamental role in the development of a leader. Lack of decision power will earn for him an ill repute. Therefore, this task must be done with deep contemplation, delicacy, and high level of understanding. The whole responsibility rests on the leader, consequences but it is not adequate to follow particular persons blindly. He should take trust on his perception.

Independent performance

   Educational leader on the one hand, is bound to take the help of other’s professional skills; on the other hand it is essential for him to take initiative until the work does not reach to its logical end

He should adopt self-management strategies. He should remain dependent on his self, the dependence on others as expectations lead a leader to utter failure. Therefore, he must observe independent performance, and learn continuously.

Self-evaluation

Work of monitoring is part of duties of educational leader he is examining his and staff’s performance. After the completion of the plan, the performance of the whole team is before him. But in perspective of his overall progress, he can sense the performance of his own, his efforts to achieve ends visible before him. He should think over this question that if some persons are set aside from the plan, will he be able alone to get required results. For this purpose he must take an evaluation about his performance regularly so that he can assess his own performance, and he continues his journey towards a better way.

Adjustment

Leader must adjust and adapt himself with the changes in objectives, standards. He should have knowledge of the past, present and future. This understanding increases in him foresightedness, wisdom and pre-planning. This makes his wok more easy, and disciplined. This also exposes to him the merits and demerits of his planning.

Self-improvement

Self-improvement is an ideological dream, to which a few leaders of the world were able to reach, but every leader involves in its struggle. To accomplish the self is the sole need of a leader by which he gets two destinations such as his own personal elevation and accomplishment of his nation’s or organizational objectives. Some leaders viewed it a sacred duty to enhance the self and to expose one’s potentials.

Goals and vision

Every leader determines his goals and objectives. He inculcates himself those skills which help him in the achievement of objectives. This ability leads to self-reliance, empowerment with the perspective of global village.

Safe-environment

Safe and secure comfortable environment plays a positive role for educational process, organization, staff and students; this environment is both material and psychological. This later is very important. It is an environment where everyone who does hard work feel respect, trust and self-confidence. Where it is easy to get educational objectives, to materialize one’s ideas and it is a source of good reputation.

Equality and justice

It is very necessary for a teacher to acquire the objective of equality and justice. Until he removes the discrimination of rich and poor, young and elder, white and black, he is not able to get success and reputation.

Acceptance of change

World is changing very rapidly. Research and technology, innovation has changed the scenario of the world drastically. Now the principle of ‘life-long learning’ is stressed by scholars. The leader who does not adapt himself with increasing change will remain backward and not able to lead his people. Therefore knowledge of change and skill to decide accordingly is now fundamental pre-requisite. At this juncture leader must know his values and what change will happen in them due to the acceptance of change. To create a consciousness among the students about the change, they become useful citizens of their society. If they do some job, they will be productive and beneficial for family and country. They also train their students about the modern concept of civic sense.

Student centered environment

Students are the center of environment in school, because school teachers, syllabus all are formed for the students. Therefore, students have the status of VIPs. It is the leader who develops a sense of respect and self-esteem among the students and teachers. Self-respect is the important aspect of human psychology. If students get respect from their schools, they will enhance respect in society. They are the future and the object of all educational activities. Therefore, it is essential to inculcate in them a sense of honor and importance.

Guidance and participation

Leader of the school has to provide resources for school. The means of these resources are society and community. The concept of participation believes in bottom to top cycles of development. On the gross-root level community knows better about their own problems and they are more concerned and curious about their solution. Therefore, it is expected that their direct participation in framing the productive environment of their own children is very pragmatic.

Communication skills

To communicate effectively is the fundamental need of a teacher as head of the institution. He has to communicate ideas, subject-matter, lecture in meeting with teachers, students, conduct seminar, conferences, interviews, conversation etc.  For this purpose he has to know various inter-personal, intra-personal communication skills with short or large gathering. Many differences emerge in the lacking of this skill, which cause disruption and conflict in the organization.

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Educational Leadership and Management

Head teacher is the head of an institution. His duties are multi-dimensional such as to enforce governmental policies, train the new generation, hold meeting with parents, teaching work from teachers, to solve teaching, non teaching problems. All people respect him and he takes all of them with him. One problem the leader has to face is that someone subordinate has more qualification than him, but despite the fact he has to run the institution. For these serious tasks he has some fundamental abilities.

Energy

Mental and physical energy is important for leader. He must be hard worker, and great degree of patience.

Empathy

He must have a great empathy for his fellow colleagues. Shares their pain.

Zeal building

He should instill zeal and zest in his staff and students by their brain storming.

Confidence

The essential quality of a leader is his confidence of his self and work.

Leader must lead

Leader must lead and know the functions of leadership.

Realistic

Leader should be realistic rather idealist regarding work, difficulties and problems of his fellows.

Emotional stability

He must avoid anger and does not cross the limits of his powers. Show a fine behavior while dealing with subordinates.

Knowledge of human relation

He must know human relations. He should understand the views of his friends and opponents with foresightedness. He must establish fine relations. Sincerity and work would be the standard instead of personal biases.

Communicative skills

He has communicative skills such as inter-personal, short groups, large group, pubic communication, mass communication etc.

Professional and technical abilities

He must have knowledge of planning, organization, directing and controlling.

Personal motivation and enthusiasm

He must possess motivation, desire, perseverance, zeal. It also generates all these forceful passions in the staff. Without his spiritual reinforcement no great task can be achieved.

Build team spirit

He can inject team work spirit in his subordinates and get more performance from their part and use this team spirit for the institution.

Problem solving

He must solve the problems of his fellows and have the skill of decision making.

Trust

He is trust worthy and staff can trust him, and mutual trust may be build.

Initiative

Initiative is the great ability of a teacher, without taking risk, cannot get great achievement.

Organizational development

He must possess organizational development abilities and know how to run the organization.

Supervision ability

Educational manager has educational and organizational abilities to supervise the work of other staff for best outcomes.

Managing change

In this modern era changes are happening in every field. New trends are introducing in education field. He must know how to make adaptation with these changes and use this change positively in the benefit of institution.

Technology

A leader must know the new technologies, techniques to use them in his field to attain the required standards and use the technology of audio visual aids.

Ability of a research work

When leader does his work consistently, he has to face new dimension. He should do some research about them, and use the results in his management. He must know the new developments in his own field and use this research for advancement.

Leadership ethics

Every field has some ethical values. Leadership must know them. These ethics may be broad-mindedness, sympathetic, observing social and religious values.

Strong will

He must possess strong will-power, without any fear from difficulties. Face the problems with great courage and overcome the problem with his team.

Judgment and analysis

Leader must know about circumstances, make analysis and after evaluating them devise pragmatic policies.

Fairness

The most vital and fundamental quality is leader’s fairness and sincerity with his team, organization and mission. Being a leader of a specific organization, profession and community, a leader must be fair with all of them.

Decisiveness

Decisiveness is an essential quality of a leader. To make in time decision is very important for a leaders.

Dependability

No person can do all works alone. He has to develop a circle of trust worthy people, who can give him best counseling which make him successful.

Fact full

He can use facts and techniques in time to solve problems.

Integrity and endurance

Leader must be possessed strong nerves with stable behavior, having tolerance, courage. He gets through the difficulties with a smile.

Courage and humor

Leader must have courage, dearness, boldness and sense of humor. The people who always make complaint about difficulties can never be a leader.

Unselfishness

Leader should not be a selfish person, greedy and insincere. He must be dignified and makes his own way.

Loyalty

He has a strong relation of faith with his country, nation, organization and work.

Visionary

Leader must be visionary, foresightedness, prudence and planning.

Man of principles

Leader should be a man of principles and confine himself within rules and regulation. He demonstrates equal behavior and justice with people of his community.

Flexibility

Leader should have an element of flexibility because rigidness cannot acquire success.

Accessibility

Leader should be approachable and accessible without accessibility a lit of problem can be developed. He cannot get popularity among his fellows.

God fearing

Leader takes decision by keeping in view that God is seeing all his actions. His decisions do not base on biases. He must believe on justice.

Democratic attitude

He can get counsel from others, respect their opinion and proceeds forward along with them and create a culture of dialogue.

Personality

His personality should be fine and he would be able to maintain amicable relations with others. he possesses broad-mindedness, courtesy and listens problems with sympathy. His personality must be attractive.

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Competency Based Education

Programs accountability

It is needed that educational leader can run educational process consistently. He can improve education and enhance accountability. For this purpose he can take following measures or steps:

1. Prepare record for accountability of teacher’s training and student’s learning.
2. He can create standards for educational program and prepare records for it.
3. He can demonstrate his knowledge and competencies to develop an improvement plan for continuous development of educational program.
4. He can guide the institution to meet the success and satisfy parents.
5. He can ensure the participation of others for continuous improvement of the educational programs in the institution.
6. Ensure the participation of the other expertise for the improvement of the organization.

Clear strategy for data and record

An administrator should be competent to collect different type of information, prepares documents and reports with the help of data. In this regard, he should be well versed with information and prepare the record in time. An administrator should be able to share information with others and avoid concealing the facts and information unnecessarily.

Providing resources for the improvement of educational process

It is very much essential for educational administration to provide resources because no organization can run without this. Following steps must be taken for this purpose.

1. He should assign financial responsibilities to teacher and make easy and transparent way of purchase.
2. Arrange resources for the betterment of staff and teachers educational programmed.
3. He can set the priorities for provision of allocate resources and funds for the educational programs and its implementation needs for the whole financial year.
4. He can make financial plan and budget.
5. He may ensure grants and funds from government, community and various other organizations for specific programs.
6. He must be aware of financial matters and rules and can act accordingly.

Resources for teaching

He can use resources for teaching, improve these resources and can develop comprehensive teaching program. In this respect, an administrator must be competent.

1. To ensure the availability of resources for teaching activities and facilities etc.
2. To ensure the use of modern technology skills and knowledge.
3. To use new resources, new inventions untraditional ways and research.
4. Student’s specific needs are fulfilled by him.
5. To make the subject matter unbiased and far from sectarianism.

Guidance to improve consistently teaching process and curriculum

Curriculum is the soul of teaching institution. It is provided by higher authority. The process of improvement in curriculum is essential for teaching process. In this concern, an educational leader must be competent:

1. To ensure teacher’s participation in planning and teaching program.
2. To achieve objective set for students according to educational design.
3. He can provide some innovative suggestions in teaching style, promoting culture etc.
4. To give help in best teaching.
5. He should be able to provide suggestions to adapt the curriculum according to the needs of students and nation to higher authorities. 

Evaluation and examination system

It is necessary for educational manager that he can make examination system more operative to motivate students and teachers to do more work with perseverance in order to give satisfactory results which can heighten his respect. In this way he facilitates teachers and arranges formal and informal evaluation for students. He can use assessment for the education and growth of the students. He should devise examination system according to the inspiration, needs of the nation and society and local community can depend and trust on such results of institution.

Development

It is also included in the competencies of educational administrator to encourage his teachers in developing professional attitude and behavior. To become the role model for the students and teachers, he should follow the following lines.

1. Observe policies and rules.
2. Considers individual differences.
3. Behaves teachers equally.
4. The teachers who do not show good results, lazy in their duties and unprofessional in their behavior are treated by him with harsh attitude.
5. Issue code of conduct and makes its strict observance.

Communication skills

1. When a teacher gives some new ideas, he should discuss it. Listen carefully those opinions put forward by teachers to solve problems. Then accept that idea if it is favorable for the institution.
2. Exchange views of mutual interest with the parents and communicate it to the students.
3. Issue commands and orders categorically to staff and students. Conduct a meeting with teachers to arrange, change of subject matter.
4. Assign some assignments to teachers and authorize them according to the duty or assignment.
5. He must know the art of conversation, meeting, lecture sermon and speech.

Achievement of objects regarding educational philosophy

1. Educational manager has the ability to take decision according to mission, philosophy, and objectives and can devise target groups and class according to strategy.
2. He can arrange student’s programs according to changing needs and circumstances.
3. He can plan by teacher’s advice and participation.
4. Constitute strategic plan and implement it according to long term planning.

Teachers assessment and ability to assign them task

1. He can take work from teachers according to rules and regulations and control the absenteeism.
2. Assign responsibility to teachers according to their abilities.
3. To assign, discuss new teachers, new entries in school, make them conscious about their responsibilities.
4. Prepare diaries and syllabus.
5. Give them guidance according to the skills, capabilities, specific fields.
6. Play a role of a mentor to enhance in them skills, leadership qualities.

Professional development

1. Head of school enhance teacher’s skills according to different professional models, training methods as life long practice and getting knowledge.
2. He persuades the teachers to participate in those activities which are related to their fields. Every teacher must read one book during a month related to his field.
3. Give guidance in management and leadership qualities.
4. Make teachers conscious about how to use related technology.

Staff development

1. Educational manager always enhance his own professional upbringing and arrange professional training for his staff.
2. Allocate resources for staff development arranges suitable activities and give remuneration for journey and time.
3. Face the challenges and train the staff for this.
4. Enhance the skills of teachers how to use technology and research.
5. Encourage students, staff.
6. Arrange in/pre-service training according to standards.

Community / social interaction

1. Head of school takes the assistance from different agencies, departments and social organizations.
2. Compel the community to share the school activities.
3. Become an information source for community.
4. Give cooperation to various social classes, participation and by alliances.
5. Provide useful workforce and citizens to society.
6. Educate students about Pakistan ideology and Islam.
7. Global village and geographic scenario must be inculcated into student’s minds.
8. He can promote social awareness and civic sense.
9. Give admission to children regardless of their status, and make advertisement according to rules and regulation. 

Other capabilities of educational leader

1. Leader in teaching content and methodology.
2. Provider of a fine teaching material.
3. Best manager and having best managing qualities.
4. Accept new changes.
5. Train his second line leadership for future.
6. Be a coach of students, teachers and develop their abilities.
7. Create an environment of fine morality and professionalism.
8. Use communication skills and know inter-personal communication.
9. In objectives, aims, research and evaluation seeks the best.

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Functions of Educational Administration

We described five functions of educational administration such as planning, organizing, commanding, coordination and controlling which control education system.

Planning

Planning is an intellectual activity which is performed on the basis of facts, ideas and principles. Activities are planned so that the objectives for which it has come to existence can be achieved.

Organizing

Organizing means arrangement, inter-relationship and order among people, material, procedure, knowledge and the work to be done.

Commanding

Commanding or directing involves the execution of plans and decisions and makes staff to perform their responsibilities efficiently.

Coordinating

Coordinating educational administration requires harmonizing in a unified manner all the elements involved in the programmed. It seeks the cooperation of all involved in the administration.

Relations management and administration

Management and administration are considered synonym but actually management is a whole and administration is simply a part of it. The use of word management is modern context, whereas administration is old concept.

Management is a total of four elements whereas administration is a part and based on and deals in controlling. Administrator deals with these four elements at a time in some cases. To observe them separately is difficult. Supervision and inspection are the tools by which administration do the function of controlling and directing. According to modern view management works on higher level whereas administrator supervisor and inspector lend a helping hand to management for attainment of goals.

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Principles of Educational Management

 A teacher of some school, college or university must keep all these principles in mind.

1.       Principle of sharing responsibility

This signifies that programs should be undertaken jointly by teachers and administrator with authority equally shared among those participated in the process.

2.       Principle of equality

The administrator should look upon his or her colleagues as socially equal.

3.       Principle of freedom

People are at their best when they have freedom to exercise their power and talent. The power of critical thinking to arrive at proper decisions, which essential for education, can only e cultivated in an atmosphere of freedom.

4.       Principle of justice

All will be treated on the same footing and undue favor to some will not be given. Lack of justice breeds disgust and frustration among people.

5.       Principle of recognition of individual’s effort

This signifies that it is through efforts that new ideas are formulated and put into practice and therefore, it should be given due recognition.

6.       Principle of planning

This stresses that planning that planning should grow out of the recognized needs and interests of those who are affected by plan.

7.       Principle of flexibility

Democratic administration is always prepared for a change of approach or policy in case it is satisfied that such a change will yield better.

8.       Principle of dynamics

The administration should always be forward looking and moving towards better programs and policies.

9.       Principles of human relation

In functioning of good administration depends upon the ability of the administrator to create better personal relations among people engaged in administration.

10.   Principle of maintenance of standards of efficiency

This means making all efforts to maintain and improve standards of efficiency in every phase of education.

11.   Principle of leadership

As a leader of various groups, the administrator must possess qualities of leadership so that others may follow the person.

12.   Principle of appreciation

Since it is normal that the human beings like to be appreciated, a democratic administrator should appreciate good work and good output.

13.   Principle of evaluation

Success or failure of a program must be assessed so that changes in future policy and program can be incorporated.

14.   Principle of research

For the maintenance of standards, it is necessary to make provisions for research and follow a number of techniques, procedures and practices of research.

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Elements of Administration

Ideas about administration of different scholars are near about the same nature. Some elements of administration are:

Planning

Planning is the base of management. It helps to set methods, powers, division of work, recruitment of staff etc. the remaining elements are bounded by planning. During planning first step is decision making and afterwards setting of objectives. The later stage is determination of policies and their application according to rules and regulation. The other stage is to determine resources and form a strategy to attain them. Planning roots out confusion and determine objective very clearly.  It lessens the cost, make easy to control. Planning lays stress on two dimensions, one instructional plan, second non-instructional plan, former deals with reaching and later deals with infrastructure and physical facilities.

Organizing

Organization means a system and culture of people by whom attainment of objects make possible. When two are more people meet together for specific purpose, it lays the foundation of an organization. System is the heart of organization and by its help the achievement of objectives makes possible.

It is an amalgamation of different activities. Every administrator is assigned a specific area under the system and he is responsible for it. He runs the state of affairs according to the assigned powers. Every staff member is assigned the related task so that any ambiguity can be removed. He explains the task in detail.

Organization includes certain facets i.e. responsibilities and powers of the head, unity of command, centralization or de-centralization, division of labor, setting of areas etc.  In school command is in the hands of head-teacher. He assigns duties according to subjects to all the teachers. He distributes different curricular and co-curricular activities among the staff. He also gives powers for the attainment of goals.

Staffing

After planning and establishing organization it is decided what type of people as staff will be recruited. In this way, their faculties. Technical skills, knowledge and experiences will be kept in view. After the recruitment, it is decided that what would be their salary, training, duty hours, promotion package and facilities. For this purpose, the right man for right job, principle is applied. In education department staff is recruited on district and provincial level that qualification and rules are devised by Government of Punjab. Schools on local basis can recruit ministerial staff.

Directing

Administrator plays a rile of a leader and issues commands. He takes counseling and guidance; he uses his potentials to last extent to lead for the attainment of objectives. This process is performed by a teacher in a classroom, head in a school and authorities on provincial and regional or division level. This streamlines the education system. This action is done by both verbal and written level. They also devise policies, constitute and amend education code, action plan, planning and directing kike as “standing order procedure” is the vital example. This term is used in army.

Reporting

At this stage an administrator uses the tools of inspection, supervision, research and data to evaluate the performance of his subordinates, attainment level of objectives and he conveys all these information to higher authorities. The reported information is also communicated to staff. Reporting is the history of an organization it shows input and output. It helps in assigning proper work to proper person. In school it seals with students, teachers, results and facilities, drop out, admission and syllabus.

Budgeting

All the aforesaid matters need ‘Resources’. We can establish organization with the help of resources, achieve objectives. Therefore, expenditures and income estimation is a pre-requisite. Without resource, organization formation cannot be materialized, and recruitment of staff possible. Hence in administrative elements budget is very essential. Budget is necessary to run a home, organization and a country. Budget has following kinds:

1. Annual budget
2. Supplementary budget
3. Development budget
4. Non-development budget
5. Special budget
6. Deficit budget
7. School budget

Advantages and objectives of budgeting

1. It helps to materialize plans
2. Control various activities
3. Determine objectives
4. Fix the standards of performance
5. Estimate about progress
6. Estimate of resources
7. Does not allow the deviation from planning
8. Balance between income and expenditure
9. Plans are completed within time frame
10. National policies are organized
11. Progress becomes balanced
12. Setting of priorities in the right direction
13. Provide economic security
14. Situation becomes clear, removes ambiguity
15. It generates strong and balanced polices for future.

School budget

The school budget is the estimate of the annual expenditure which enables smooth running of the institution. It includes the developmental as well as the non-developmental expenditure of the school.

Government provides resources to run the schools. But for the formation of whole country’s budget according to the needs, it takes budget estimate from every institution.

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School Inspection Reports

Aims of inspection

Some aims are settled by experts:

1. To improve the performance and development of organization.
2. Educational authority, school and local community coordination
3. The assessment of governmental policies, objectives, implication and their success
4. To improve educational quality
5. To evaluate school performance and suggest the solution of the problems
6. To improve professional skills of the teachers and provide them in-service training
7. To give the right direction to the resources and energies of school
8. To make the school quite up to the mark
9. To make communication with school administration and inspection team
10. To avoid any fault and mistake by means of accountability
11. To help for maintenance of best moral and educational environment
12. To ensure the right use of public and private
13. To provide future guidance by examining their educational conditions
14. To improve curricular and co-curricular activities
15. To create harmony among students, teachers and head-teacher.

Functions of inspection

1. To learn that is school working according to national inspiration?
2. Has the school a link with inspection officers and other institutions?
3. Is the school conscious about the matters which are to be inspected?
4. Are the suitable people preparing for different levels?
5. To inspect the teaching work either right way of teaching is being adopted or not?
6. Is the time table adequate for completion of the syllabus in time?
7. Are the teacher’s teaching and non-teaching activities according to rules and regulation?
8. Are the student’s activities according to educational standards?
9. Are the co-curricular activities hold and how much they are sufficient for the students?
10. Is school environment suitable for educational process?
11. Is the cleanliness and environment according to health needs?
12. Are the facilities of library, classrooms, play grounds and other facilities being provided to students?
13. Are the relationship of teachers and students suitable and cooperative in educational process?
14. Is the school record complete and entries of funds and expenditures are accurate and justified?
15. Are development works in school under process?
16. Os the school providing an environment in which student’s multi-dimensional growth possible?

To sum up, all the above details can be described as follows:

1. Supervision of instructional work
2. Supervision of co-curricular and curricular activities and programmed
3. Supervision of school environment
4. Supervision of school record
5. Supervision of developmental aspect
6. Supervision of public growth

Procedure of inspection

Generally, this method of inspection is adopted;

School visit

School visit can be done in three ways:

• To inspect after informing the head. It is called annual inspection or technical inspection.
• Surprise visit
• Visit after the invitation of the head of institution.

Teachers meeting and conference

In this method inspector takes a joint session of teachers and head of institution. He talks about the strength and a weakness objectively, gives opinion and form future plan with mutual interaction.

Issuing orders and circulars

• In normal conditions instructions, orders and circulars with different investigations and policies are issued to organizations.
• After inspection, inspector can issue a warning for the completion of some required tasks. He can bind the head by some orders to make compliance within a certain time period.

Demonstration of teaching

If an inspector feels that teaching is not carried out according to standards, he will make a demonstration and show how teaching can be done or will arrange some workshop with the help of some subject specialists.

Planned inner and outer school visit

When an inspector visits some organization, he takes with him some teachers of other school keeping in view the reputation of the inspected school. Thus, teachers can observe the discipline and administration of school and take counsel from them about their educational experiences. This sharing of knowledge is a learning process for institutional environment.

The other way is quite opposite to the above. Teachers of schools which have poor performance are accompanied the inspector to observe the well reputed institutions. In this way, they can learn with others’ experiences and make their own school better accordingly. It is also called indirect staff development.

Kind of inspection

• Democratic inspection
• Creative inspection
• Preventive inspection
• Dictatorial inspection
• Laissez fair inspection
• Surprise inspection
• Technical inspection

The points on which school is inspected

• Description of the school
• Overall effectiveness of the school
• Achievement and standards
• Personal development and well-being
• Quality of provision
• Teaching and learning
• Curriculum and other activities
• Care, guidance and support
• Leadership and management

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Types of Supervision

Kinds or styles of supervision are as follows:

Corrective supervision

It is an authoritarian concept. Supervisor finds out faults of the staff and threatens them on their weaknesses.

Supervision by Inspection

This type reflects authoritarian style of supervision. It checks that either teacher is performing his routine tasks or not. If he feels some negligence then he decides how to replace eligible people in their place or bring some appropriate changes.

Preventive Supervision

Supervisor’s behavior is realistic. The situation and the problems that he observes during inspection, he tries to make their solution within his powers.

Laissez fair supervision

Supervisor does not take any kind of interest in the routine matters. Teachers do their work according to their own will, and they share the powers of head-teacher. This happens when supervisor is weak having inferior mental capabilities.

Creative supervision

Supervisor evaluates teachers work according to his professional capabilities and instead of adopting negative behavior he tries to understand their problems and with the cooperation of teachers he finds the solution of the problem.

Scientific supervision

These types of supervision use scientific tools, data and methods and all means to improve the situation.

Democratic supervision

In this method staffs opinion is taken and makes efforts to solve their day to day problems.

Training Guidance Mentoring

In this method, supervisors himself demonstrate the methods as a role model rather compelling the teacher for better teaching method. Teachers try to learn from him due to his learning and experience. The role of supervisor in this method of supervision is like an elder brother, mentor, sister or a coach and leader.

What is to be checked?

First of all a supervisor divides the whole school business into two parts, educational and non-educational. After this division, he maintains a list of further possible matters and does his inspection according to this formation.

1.       Supervision of teaching matters

It includes the following

• Curriculum
• Syllabus
• Diaries
• Lesson planning
• Classroom management
• Classroom environment
• Governments policies
• Syllabus and its practical application
• Changes in examination system
• Discipline in organization
• Counseling
• Security management
• Teachers students behavior
• Teaching methods
• Presentation methods
• Supervision of teachers
• Ethics
• Mutual relations
• Problem of institutions.

1.       Non-Teaching Matters

It includes the following:

• Records of all kinds
• Planning Organization
• Staff profile or statement
• Budget
• Income/expenditure schedules and statements
• Facilities
• Resources Division of work
• Rules and regulation
• Community relations
• Library Laboratory
• Literary and co-curricular activities 

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What is Supervision

Supervision

Behind every successful school, there is an effective supervision programmed. “Supervision is the glue that holds successful school together processes by which some person or group of people are responsible for providing a link between individual teachers needs and organization goals so that individuals within the school can work in harmony toward their vision of what the school should be.

The relationship between a teacher and supervisor was not strong enough in near past. It was a horrible dream for a number of teachers but now it is changed. The more a supervisor is aware about the teaching process the more it would be convenient for him to communicate the teacher. For this purpose both should read the literature of different scholars of this field. It is very essential for teaching professional and social trainer to give them intellectual support. A supervisor should not always remain busy in administrative work. He must provide an effective and learning environment to teachers.

Definition of Supervision

Supervision is a word derived from the word superior and its other compound word is vision. After joining both words the literal meaning will be superior knowledge and power. A second term is also used as general supervision.

Such type of supervision ignores professional development. The purpose of supervision is not to control the teacher rather to take their cooperation and facilitate them to improve their teaching method. Supervisor plays a role of a supporter, helper but not a manager. The availability of facilities improves teachers performance. The objective of assessment evaluation is to analyze professional behavior. Evaluation is such a critical assessment, which a supervisor does by rising himself above the traditional behavior of supervision. When he takes decision, he keeps this fact in mind that how a teacher will perceive it and in which perspective. Supervision process is a contract between supervisor and a teacher. Both unanimously by making consensus can run this and can perform their responsibility.

Supervision is needed to set the educational institution on right direction and attain the set goals. In every field experts and well educated persons play the role of leaders and set the path towards future.

We observe the duties on the part of parents, government and society by the process of supervision. Supervision examines teaching processes and activities. All definitions indicate to educational process, services, action and betterment of education. Mostly, authorities do inspection to check the adequate level of educational skills. It means to lend a helping hand to teachers and students in their learning to, improve their professional skills, attainment of settled objectives, and assess the educational objectives according to curriculum. In other words, supervision is a suitable guidance of teachers, so that students can be prepared according to the future challenges. In learning process, supervision is usually carried out by headmaster, principals and related administrative officials.

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The Concept of Inspection

The concept of inspection, supervision and administration are used synonymous. These terms are used to refer the function and activities of managing resources, tasks; persons in order to achieve defined and set objectives. Therefore it is essential for a prospective teacher, manager and administrator to know the term like inspection, supervision and management.

Why school Administration is compulsory or essential

The school is the miniature of society, community center and place of future preparation. Furthermore, it is center of those activities that create awareness about social values. It makes acquaintance with social values, a stage which prepares for coming future. Policies are formed on national level to train innocent minds of new generation. Governments establish departments for the enforcement of plans and policies. Following points reflect the importance and need of school administration.

1. School is a major source to achieve national goals, objective and thus school administration plays a vital role.
2. Advantages in technology influencing behaviors, attitudes and ambitions of societies. It is school administration that can make a move towards positive changes.
3. School administration plays a vital role in this age of social changes i.e. scientific, social, economic and psychological. School creates awareness about these changes and helps how to meet the challenges.
4. Teacher is considered change agent in the world, who exerts his influence by means of syllabus, curriculum and teaching methods. Therefore it is school administration that controls and guides the above activities.
5. Institutions are the soul of nations. It is the duty of the administration to run these institutions. The enforcement of rules and policies to run the school is the responsibilities of the school administration.
6. School administration creates in students the civic sense, awareness about their responsibilities, develop fine values, and inculcate better behavior.
7. School administration promotes Islamic values, democratic norms, and harmony relations with Muslim world.
8. School administration is important for curricular and co-curricular activities.

Responsibilities of education management School system

After knowing the concept of administration and management, it is necessary to know what the major functions of school administration to perform are. Basically, we divide these functions in two categories:

1. Instructional tasks
2. Non-instructional tasks

Instructional Tasks

1. Formation of mission, policy
2. Provision of peaceful educational environment
3. Cooperation and efforts to achieve national objectives
4. Participation in educational planning
5. Training and development of teacher competence to perform better in education
6. Supervision and inspection of instructional work in classroom.
7. To fill the communication gap among students, teacher and administrator
8. Motivating teachers and students to increased their performance

Non-Instructional Tasks

1. Provision of physical facilities
2. Provision of Infrastructure
3. Arrangement of time table to maintain discipline
4. Determine responsibilities
5. Recruitment and training of staff
6. Preparation of budget
7. Arrangement of Budget
8. Arrangement of resources Coordination among teacher, students, community and authorities.
9. Set the priorities regarding research.

Types of Administration

1. Authoritarian administration
2. Democratic Administration
3. Laissez faire Administration

Authoritative

It is opposite to liberty, freedom and it refers to a dictator type of administration. The characteristics of this type are such a behavior which is rude, rigid, and contemptuous on the part of administrator. He wants to make his subordinates suppress and frightened, imposes his opinion, uses his authority relentlessly. He does not bother about others feelings and sentiments. He strictly enforces rules. He does not show any sign of sympathy, honor, good human behavior. Subordinates are bound to obey without question. Nobody has the right to give suggestions to the management. Subordinates take their responsibilities with a sense of coercion. The emphasis is placed on strict control and discipline.

Advantages:

1. Work complete in time
2. Provides opportunities to use expertise.
3. It encourages quick decision and rapid action.
4. Some institutions also get better result by using this type of administration.
5. This method is called (M.B.D) management by discipline.
6. It gives weight to experience and an ability to work.
7. It promotes working relationship.

Disadvantages

This method possesses more disadvantages than advantages.

1. This method of administration breeds flattering habit in subordinates.
2. It harms human ego, and self esteem
3. It chain freedom of thought and expression.
4. An environment of coercion prevails in the institution.
5. In case of non-compliance subordinate has to suffer heavy loss.
6. It restrains use of wisdom for the benefit of institution.
7. It promotes culture of awe rather dialogue and mutual accommodation.
8. It decreases passion in the workers to do work with commitment and enthusiasm.
9. Staff divided in groups and they start conspiracies against each other.
10. Decrease level of trust between officer and staff.
11. Workers become habitual to remain under strict supervision.
12. It brings forth ‘yes sir’ culture rather commitment to work.
13. It reduces sense of responsibility.
14. It enhances slavery, falsehood, backbiting and deception.
15. Promotes interest seeking trends rather love for country, work and profession.
16. This system does not provide alternate leadership.

Democratic Administration

This type of administration gives importance to the suggestions and opinion of the subordinates. This gives freedom of expression and thought. In this style of administration, bottom up approach is adopted to make decisions. It promotes the values like respect of opinion tolerance, broad-mindedness, participation, self respected, freedom of thought etc. the administrator plays his role as a mentor, brother and teach. It develops open dialogue culture, an environment ensure cooperation. Subordinates are considered as human beings; therefore, work is assigned to them according to their faculties and skills. Because, all members have common objectives and destination so they work as term. In this style of management, subordinates are encourages to share and contribute willingly. This type of management lays the foundation of progress of the institutions and organization. This method is usually applied in school.

Advantages

1. All members are involved in decision making that is why they work very hard to achieve the defined objectives to reach destination.
2. Administrator takes collective decisions; therefore, everything is shared up to result. The concept of collective responsibility prevails. One’s failure is the failure of all becomes the hallmark.
3. Distribution of power does not pave the way to crisis of leadership because alternative leadership is ready to assume leadership role.
4. Members of organization work spontaneously by means of self-directive manner. They know very well what would be the destination.
5. Because of creative environment, progress toward betterment always continues that ensures the best training of students.
6. There is no distance between subordinate and administrator.
7. It heightens the morale of staff and they feel secure.
8. It enhances self-control.
9. Good tradition, environment of participation, in setting objectives all these collectively enhance motivation in staff.

Disadvantages

This type of administration bears low level of demerits but some are worthy to be noted.

1. Right of the difference of opinion when given to such persons who have no vast knowledge and experience cause in them steadfastness o their opinion and they begin to make conspiracies to convince others about their inadequate opinion. They take it as a matter of their own prestige and ego.
2. Right to criticize makes someone’s behavior more negative and they continuously criticize negatively.
3. Every person feels himself of great status and ignores experience and expertise.
4. Personal freedom is a fine thing but a liberty to full length is not adequate.
5. Respect of humanity is a fine value but every person cannot assimilate it.
6.  Man is a combination of vice and virtue. The flourish of vice is more easy than virtue.
7. Right thinking is a fundamental value in dialogue culture but every person does not possess sound judgment.
8. The people who think rightly and work sincerely are jealous by others.
9. Human beings are selfish and they avoid from hard work. Therefore, they always incline to give such opinion which serves their own interests.
10. Administrator always gives more importance to those who have sound judgment and work laboriously. In fact, it is hard to give respect to all members of staff becomes a source of many difficulties.
11. The functioning of democratic norms affect and strong conventions and traditions which are essential for system and institutions.
12. Under such type of administration consensus building is not possible. Multi-groups come into being as pressure groups who force the administrator to make compromise and have to accept substandard opinion. It influences quality education as counter product and affects social value system.

Laissez faire Administration

It is based on the principle of non-interference. In this way of administration, an administrator becomes lethargic, sloth, selfish behavior and lack of interest. He does not interfere in the business of organization and maintain status quo. He depends upon others. The role of leadership becomes weak. Every person does whatever he wants. His management is actually mismanagement. The top priority of the administrator is how to hold his position rather how to run the organization effectively. During this course the training of employee become impossible, system goes deep in chaos, subordinates do not observer rules and organization moves toward down slide. The attainments of objectives become more difficult. Administrator loses moral dearness, sense of responsibilities and fear of God.

Advantages

1. This way of administration is beneficial in those areas where working staff is more senior, responsible and experienced.
2. This method is opposite to authoritative way of administration. This method is successful in business partnership instead of educational institutions. This is useful for bargaining. If the human conscience is ready to prick and love for humanity and homeland exists, this method will be useful.

Disadvantages

1. All people do claim limitless freedom and lose discipline.
2. New comers usually do not ready to learn conventions and training, discipline and norms of profession.
3. The people who are deputed from college or university to school do not ready to accept any guideline.
4. It does not allow developing a culture of professionalism and promoting anarchy.
5. It destroys discipline and social ethical values.
6. It leads the system to collapse.
7. It restrains the promotion of quality in every related field.
8. Interest seeking groups and pressure groups exert strong influence on head and he becomes helpless.
9. It lacks of the sense of responsibility, God fearing, welfare of the teachers and students.
10. It shakes the trust on the survival of the humanity and sublime values.

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