Types of Decision Making

Likewise problems, decision-making have also various types. Some decisions require great contemplation, prudence and wisdom. It is also possible that such type of decisions is to be faced by the administrator once in life time. Some decisions do not require deep thinking and they are settled very easily.

Decision-making are of two kinds

• Programmed decision
• Non-programmed decision

Programmed decision

A decision made when the situation occurs frequently enough or is sufficiently well-structured to be resolved by applying predetermined decision rules.

An administrator does such type of decision in the situation where rules and regulations are already existed to address these problems. These decisions are done repeatedly and they are routine matters. The situation is very clear before the administrator. This type of situation requires future policy formation and leads to enact new rules and regulations. Policy is the principle, which considered as the guiding line of action. For the implementation of this policy rules and procedures are formed. For example, the rule is passed that the primary education is a compulsion for children who are five years old is “rule” in true sense. The procedure is also determined which explains how the policy will be enforced in practice i.e. children’s name, date of birth, income of parents. In this regard parents give oath for admission. It is a procedure. Either the school Urdu as medium of instruction or English as medium, it will be decided on policy level. It means, in such decision rules, policy and procedures will be observed. We also call it SOP (Standing Order Procedure).

Non-programmed decision

A decision made in a situation where pre-determined decision rules cannot be applied because the situation is less structured occurs rarely, or in unique.

This includes hard decisions which are made by high authorities. For example, some private institutions decide that students should be studied in their organization without fees on certain terms and conditions. For this, the question is addressed that from where do the resources be generates? How does the salary be arranged for the teacher? Such type of decision can only be made by owners of the school despite the principal or teachers.

Conditions of decision making

The administrator has to face different problems during decision making process. In some cases he has information; on some he has vague information or absence of policies, rules and procedures. Already established rules are ineffective to solve this problem. He is not certain about the solution. In this case four conditions are essential to keep in mind.

Certainty

Condition of certainty is a situation in which the manager has complete information about the problem, the alternative, and the consequences of a decision on the future.

Therefore, such types of decisions are taken easily and effectively. But in some cases circumstances can be changed entirely in future. In these decisions administrator follow rules, procedures and policy or his discretionary powers creatively without any pressure and time frame.

Risk

Condition of risk, a situation in which the manager understands the problem and the alternatives and has only enough information to estimate the probability that the available alternatives will lead to desired outcome.

Manager or head keeping in view the possibilities and takes decision and the whole team follow the decision and work but a risk remains such as one subject if remains weak will lead the failure in result as a whole in class. It is necessary for an educational head to avoid such risks and try to produce better results.

Uncertainty

Uncertainty means ambiguity, vagueness and lack of clarity. It is condition, a situation in which the manager understands the problem but has incomplete information about the alternatives and the probably consequences of each alternative.

Thus manager has to use his own reason, logic or intuition to reach on some decision in this uncertain condition. He himself remains unclear about the results. It is a complex and challenging situation that require natural leadership qualities.

Ambiguity

Ambiguity is a situation in which the manager has little or no information about the problem, the alternatives or the consequences of each alternative.

Manager has to make his own new set up and design a unique strategy to get way out of the problem. This entire situation requires great leadership qualities and supreme confidence of the leader. The more he is knowledgeable and experienced the more he will breed in himself the resolution of solving problems.  

 Models of decision making

Classical model

In this model the outlook is objective and rationale. Decisions are made with complete knowledge and information. Alternative models are scrutinized keenly and explained in detail. All the objectives are clear and visible. Everything is in black and white. But the problem is such rationale and logical path cannot be followed accurately. In real life situation nobody knows what will happen. To decide and launch a strategy is our power, but what would be the consequences nobody can predict. Developed countries have reached at the point of knowledge and technology and strategies that they can assume and predict human behavior to possible extent and use in problem solving.

Administrative model

In this model, managers cannot decide, in rational and logical way. This model is also termed as “Bounded Rationality”. According to which decisions of decision maker depends upon his own knowledge and time. Therefore, usually due to lack of knowledge and information it remains imperfect and causes a loss to organization. It happens due to lack of resources and time which hamper availability of information. If complete information is available, the inexperienced decision maker will not be able to take right decisions.

Sometimes alternatives are ignored without assessing their true worth, its details and consequences. All this happens due to lack of intelligence and memory.

Barriers on decision making

There are some barriers which hinders the decision making process. A manager should avoid from them. They are as follows:

1. Incomplete information
2. Incomplete identification of the problem
3. No preparation of list on alternatives.
4. Decisions based on biases
5. Head of school sticks on the decision after revealing its weaknesses during implementation
6. To change the existing situation despite its positive results
7. To make defense of some issue illogically and without rational

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Types of Problems

Crisis problem

A crisis problem is a “situation that urgently requires an immediate decision.” In this position head teacher perceives that the goodwill of the organization is at the stake and it is necessary to find the solution of the crisis as early as possible. For example, in a school two groups kick the row which threaten to the lives of the teachers and students, administrator will call the police, seeks parent’s cooperation or close the school with the consent of District or Provincial administration. This situation also can develop during natural calamity, such as storm, heavy rain, land-sliding, riots in the city, terrorism, fire, war etc.

Non-crisis problem

Non crisis problem is a problem requires a decision but less urgently than a crisis problem. This situation demands less urgent attention but not instant solution. Crisis problem, deal with urgent event in reactionary way while non-crisis problem deals with imminent events in a conscious way. For example, if government provides computer to schools but skilled faculty is not available. School administration will train their own faculty member to run the computer lab, or they will arrange provisionally a teacher by means of “Management Community”. Or find a volunteer teacher from the community. But for this school administration the element of time frame is flexible.

Opportunity problem

Opportunity problem is a situation that can be dealt with in a way that has a positive effect on the organization and its performance. In this situation the solution of the problem leads to some benefit in the form of outcome. In this situation head of organization does not feel any pressure or he feels some difficulties seeing it. This problem leads to creative type of solution. For example, head and teachers jointly decide to keep the school clean or what steps can be taken for quality education. In this regard, library books increase in number, discipline improvement or equip the science laboratories with modern instruments. The solution of these problems leads to raising the goodwill of the school but it takes time.

Well structured problem

It is straight forward, familiar, easily defined problem. For example, a student’s name is struck off due to absentees; his re-admission is his legal right. Therefore, administrator has no pressure to bear upon.

Less structured problem

It is a new problem in which information is ambiguous or incomplete, for example, after establishment a computer lab, some computer virus invades the computer while administrator in untrained in computer. This will be a new and unique problem for him. He has to contact with various teachers, computer experts, make an estimate of the loss, wasted records will renew by hard copies of the record, again install windows, and maintain it and check the performance of the laboratory.

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What is Personal Development

These are the important principles for self development.

Self-awareness

Self-awareness is a pre-requisite for the character. Leader must assess his intellectual professional interests and needs. His interests must revolve round his educational institution and professional needs. He should be aware that what are his potentials? Where his strengths lie is? What are his drawbacks? He thinks over his limitation and powers that how much tough time he can give to his own self. How much tolerance he has? He keeps in mind the social values, welfare of the society. One administrator comments that truth is my strength.

Self-advocacy

The beneficiaries of status quo or chaos do not bear the change. At this juncture, he has to explain his behavior, position and task before high officials, community and teachers, or stakeholders. For this purpose he takes the help of results which he shows in curriculum, extra-curriculum and co-curriculum activities. He expresses his and organization’s needs, his future field of priorities, and ambitions, make his own as well as his high authorities with prestige. He shows his scarification of self-rights.

Self-confidence

Self-confidence is the most vital quality of educational leader. He must have a confidence of his own that he is able to get determined objectives or his department, nation, society and above all young generation. If this conviction, confidence is raised above to the level of faith with God fearing, he will certainly provide best people to society. This confidence is the source of his success.

Decision making

Decision making is a complex skill. For this purpose we need planning, application of planning. He should not consider himself that his logic has final authority. He should take help from the past. Design best type of planning and choose best plans, it will lead him surely to success. Decision making surely plays a fundamental role in the development of a leader. Lack of decision power will earn for him an ill repute. Therefore, this task must be done with deep contemplation, delicacy, and high level of understanding. The whole responsibility rests on the leader, consequences but it is not adequate to follow particular persons blindly. He should take trust on his perception.

Independent performance

   Educational leader on the one hand, is bound to take the help of other’s professional skills; on the other hand it is essential for him to take initiative until the work does not reach to its logical end

He should adopt self-management strategies. He should remain dependent on his self, the dependence on others as expectations lead a leader to utter failure. Therefore, he must observe independent performance, and learn continuously.

Self-evaluation

Work of monitoring is part of duties of educational leader he is examining his and staff’s performance. After the completion of the plan, the performance of the whole team is before him. But in perspective of his overall progress, he can sense the performance of his own, his efforts to achieve ends visible before him. He should think over this question that if some persons are set aside from the plan, will he be able alone to get required results. For this purpose he must take an evaluation about his performance regularly so that he can assess his own performance, and he continues his journey towards a better way.

Adjustment

Leader must adjust and adapt himself with the changes in objectives, standards. He should have knowledge of the past, present and future. This understanding increases in him foresightedness, wisdom and pre-planning. This makes his wok more easy, and disciplined. This also exposes to him the merits and demerits of his planning.

Self-improvement

Self-improvement is an ideological dream, to which a few leaders of the world were able to reach, but every leader involves in its struggle. To accomplish the self is the sole need of a leader by which he gets two destinations such as his own personal elevation and accomplishment of his nation’s or organizational objectives. Some leaders viewed it a sacred duty to enhance the self and to expose one’s potentials.

Goals and vision

Every leader determines his goals and objectives. He inculcates himself those skills which help him in the achievement of objectives. This ability leads to self-reliance, empowerment with the perspective of global village.

Safe-environment

Safe and secure comfortable environment plays a positive role for educational process, organization, staff and students; this environment is both material and psychological. This later is very important. It is an environment where everyone who does hard work feel respect, trust and self-confidence. Where it is easy to get educational objectives, to materialize one’s ideas and it is a source of good reputation.

Equality and justice

It is very necessary for a teacher to acquire the objective of equality and justice. Until he removes the discrimination of rich and poor, young and elder, white and black, he is not able to get success and reputation.

Acceptance of change

World is changing very rapidly. Research and technology, innovation has changed the scenario of the world drastically. Now the principle of ‘life-long learning’ is stressed by scholars. The leader who does not adapt himself with increasing change will remain backward and not able to lead his people. Therefore knowledge of change and skill to decide accordingly is now fundamental pre-requisite. At this juncture leader must know his values and what change will happen in them due to the acceptance of change. To create a consciousness among the students about the change, they become useful citizens of their society. If they do some job, they will be productive and beneficial for family and country. They also train their students about the modern concept of civic sense.

Student centered environment

Students are the center of environment in school, because school teachers, syllabus all are formed for the students. Therefore, students have the status of VIPs. It is the leader who develops a sense of respect and self-esteem among the students and teachers. Self-respect is the important aspect of human psychology. If students get respect from their schools, they will enhance respect in society. They are the future and the object of all educational activities. Therefore, it is essential to inculcate in them a sense of honor and importance.

Guidance and participation

Leader of the school has to provide resources for school. The means of these resources are society and community. The concept of participation believes in bottom to top cycles of development. On the gross-root level community knows better about their own problems and they are more concerned and curious about their solution. Therefore, it is expected that their direct participation in framing the productive environment of their own children is very pragmatic.

Communication skills

To communicate effectively is the fundamental need of a teacher as head of the institution. He has to communicate ideas, subject-matter, lecture in meeting with teachers, students, conduct seminar, conferences, interviews, conversation etc.  For this purpose he has to know various inter-personal, intra-personal communication skills with short or large gathering. Many differences emerge in the lacking of this skill, which cause disruption and conflict in the organization.

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Educational Leadership and Management

Head teacher is the head of an institution. His duties are multi-dimensional such as to enforce governmental policies, train the new generation, hold meeting with parents, teaching work from teachers, to solve teaching, non teaching problems. All people respect him and he takes all of them with him. One problem the leader has to face is that someone subordinate has more qualification than him, but despite the fact he has to run the institution. For these serious tasks he has some fundamental abilities.

Energy

Mental and physical energy is important for leader. He must be hard worker, and great degree of patience.

Empathy

He must have a great empathy for his fellow colleagues. Shares their pain.

Zeal building

He should instill zeal and zest in his staff and students by their brain storming.

Confidence

The essential quality of a leader is his confidence of his self and work.

Leader must lead

Leader must lead and know the functions of leadership.

Realistic

Leader should be realistic rather idealist regarding work, difficulties and problems of his fellows.

Emotional stability

He must avoid anger and does not cross the limits of his powers. Show a fine behavior while dealing with subordinates.

Knowledge of human relation

He must know human relations. He should understand the views of his friends and opponents with foresightedness. He must establish fine relations. Sincerity and work would be the standard instead of personal biases.

Communicative skills

He has communicative skills such as inter-personal, short groups, large group, pubic communication, mass communication etc.

Professional and technical abilities

He must have knowledge of planning, organization, directing and controlling.

Personal motivation and enthusiasm

He must possess motivation, desire, perseverance, zeal. It also generates all these forceful passions in the staff. Without his spiritual reinforcement no great task can be achieved.

Build team spirit

He can inject team work spirit in his subordinates and get more performance from their part and use this team spirit for the institution.

Problem solving

He must solve the problems of his fellows and have the skill of decision making.

Trust

He is trust worthy and staff can trust him, and mutual trust may be build.

Initiative

Initiative is the great ability of a teacher, without taking risk, cannot get great achievement.

Organizational development

He must possess organizational development abilities and know how to run the organization.

Supervision ability

Educational manager has educational and organizational abilities to supervise the work of other staff for best outcomes.

Managing change

In this modern era changes are happening in every field. New trends are introducing in education field. He must know how to make adaptation with these changes and use this change positively in the benefit of institution.

Technology

A leader must know the new technologies, techniques to use them in his field to attain the required standards and use the technology of audio visual aids.

Ability of a research work

When leader does his work consistently, he has to face new dimension. He should do some research about them, and use the results in his management. He must know the new developments in his own field and use this research for advancement.

Leadership ethics

Every field has some ethical values. Leadership must know them. These ethics may be broad-mindedness, sympathetic, observing social and religious values.

Strong will

He must possess strong will-power, without any fear from difficulties. Face the problems with great courage and overcome the problem with his team.

Judgment and analysis

Leader must know about circumstances, make analysis and after evaluating them devise pragmatic policies.

Fairness

The most vital and fundamental quality is leader’s fairness and sincerity with his team, organization and mission. Being a leader of a specific organization, profession and community, a leader must be fair with all of them.

Decisiveness

Decisiveness is an essential quality of a leader. To make in time decision is very important for a leaders.

Dependability

No person can do all works alone. He has to develop a circle of trust worthy people, who can give him best counseling which make him successful.

Fact full

He can use facts and techniques in time to solve problems.

Integrity and endurance

Leader must be possessed strong nerves with stable behavior, having tolerance, courage. He gets through the difficulties with a smile.

Courage and humor

Leader must have courage, dearness, boldness and sense of humor. The people who always make complaint about difficulties can never be a leader.

Unselfishness

Leader should not be a selfish person, greedy and insincere. He must be dignified and makes his own way.

Loyalty

He has a strong relation of faith with his country, nation, organization and work.

Visionary

Leader must be visionary, foresightedness, prudence and planning.

Man of principles

Leader should be a man of principles and confine himself within rules and regulation. He demonstrates equal behavior and justice with people of his community.

Flexibility

Leader should have an element of flexibility because rigidness cannot acquire success.

Accessibility

Leader should be approachable and accessible without accessibility a lit of problem can be developed. He cannot get popularity among his fellows.

God fearing

Leader takes decision by keeping in view that God is seeing all his actions. His decisions do not base on biases. He must believe on justice.

Democratic attitude

He can get counsel from others, respect their opinion and proceeds forward along with them and create a culture of dialogue.

Personality

His personality should be fine and he would be able to maintain amicable relations with others. he possesses broad-mindedness, courtesy and listens problems with sympathy. His personality must be attractive.

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Competency Based Education

Programs accountability

It is needed that educational leader can run educational process consistently. He can improve education and enhance accountability. For this purpose he can take following measures or steps:

1. Prepare record for accountability of teacher’s training and student’s learning.
2. He can create standards for educational program and prepare records for it.
3. He can demonstrate his knowledge and competencies to develop an improvement plan for continuous development of educational program.
4. He can guide the institution to meet the success and satisfy parents.
5. He can ensure the participation of others for continuous improvement of the educational programs in the institution.
6. Ensure the participation of the other expertise for the improvement of the organization.

Clear strategy for data and record

An administrator should be competent to collect different type of information, prepares documents and reports with the help of data. In this regard, he should be well versed with information and prepare the record in time. An administrator should be able to share information with others and avoid concealing the facts and information unnecessarily.

Providing resources for the improvement of educational process

It is very much essential for educational administration to provide resources because no organization can run without this. Following steps must be taken for this purpose.

1. He should assign financial responsibilities to teacher and make easy and transparent way of purchase.
2. Arrange resources for the betterment of staff and teachers educational programmed.
3. He can set the priorities for provision of allocate resources and funds for the educational programs and its implementation needs for the whole financial year.
4. He can make financial plan and budget.
5. He may ensure grants and funds from government, community and various other organizations for specific programs.
6. He must be aware of financial matters and rules and can act accordingly.

Resources for teaching

He can use resources for teaching, improve these resources and can develop comprehensive teaching program. In this respect, an administrator must be competent.

1. To ensure the availability of resources for teaching activities and facilities etc.
2. To ensure the use of modern technology skills and knowledge.
3. To use new resources, new inventions untraditional ways and research.
4. Student’s specific needs are fulfilled by him.
5. To make the subject matter unbiased and far from sectarianism.

Guidance to improve consistently teaching process and curriculum

Curriculum is the soul of teaching institution. It is provided by higher authority. The process of improvement in curriculum is essential for teaching process. In this concern, an educational leader must be competent:

1. To ensure teacher’s participation in planning and teaching program.
2. To achieve objective set for students according to educational design.
3. He can provide some innovative suggestions in teaching style, promoting culture etc.
4. To give help in best teaching.
5. He should be able to provide suggestions to adapt the curriculum according to the needs of students and nation to higher authorities. 

Evaluation and examination system

It is necessary for educational manager that he can make examination system more operative to motivate students and teachers to do more work with perseverance in order to give satisfactory results which can heighten his respect. In this way he facilitates teachers and arranges formal and informal evaluation for students. He can use assessment for the education and growth of the students. He should devise examination system according to the inspiration, needs of the nation and society and local community can depend and trust on such results of institution.

Development

It is also included in the competencies of educational administrator to encourage his teachers in developing professional attitude and behavior. To become the role model for the students and teachers, he should follow the following lines.

1. Observe policies and rules.
2. Considers individual differences.
3. Behaves teachers equally.
4. The teachers who do not show good results, lazy in their duties and unprofessional in their behavior are treated by him with harsh attitude.
5. Issue code of conduct and makes its strict observance.

Communication skills

1. When a teacher gives some new ideas, he should discuss it. Listen carefully those opinions put forward by teachers to solve problems. Then accept that idea if it is favorable for the institution.
2. Exchange views of mutual interest with the parents and communicate it to the students.
3. Issue commands and orders categorically to staff and students. Conduct a meeting with teachers to arrange, change of subject matter.
4. Assign some assignments to teachers and authorize them according to the duty or assignment.
5. He must know the art of conversation, meeting, lecture sermon and speech.

Achievement of objects regarding educational philosophy

1. Educational manager has the ability to take decision according to mission, philosophy, and objectives and can devise target groups and class according to strategy.
2. He can arrange student’s programs according to changing needs and circumstances.
3. He can plan by teacher’s advice and participation.
4. Constitute strategic plan and implement it according to long term planning.

Teachers assessment and ability to assign them task

1. He can take work from teachers according to rules and regulations and control the absenteeism.
2. Assign responsibility to teachers according to their abilities.
3. To assign, discuss new teachers, new entries in school, make them conscious about their responsibilities.
4. Prepare diaries and syllabus.
5. Give them guidance according to the skills, capabilities, specific fields.
6. Play a role of a mentor to enhance in them skills, leadership qualities.

Professional development

1. Head of school enhance teacher’s skills according to different professional models, training methods as life long practice and getting knowledge.
2. He persuades the teachers to participate in those activities which are related to their fields. Every teacher must read one book during a month related to his field.
3. Give guidance in management and leadership qualities.
4. Make teachers conscious about how to use related technology.

Staff development

1. Educational manager always enhance his own professional upbringing and arrange professional training for his staff.
2. Allocate resources for staff development arranges suitable activities and give remuneration for journey and time.
3. Face the challenges and train the staff for this.
4. Enhance the skills of teachers how to use technology and research.
5. Encourage students, staff.
6. Arrange in/pre-service training according to standards.

Community / social interaction

1. Head of school takes the assistance from different agencies, departments and social organizations.
2. Compel the community to share the school activities.
3. Become an information source for community.
4. Give cooperation to various social classes, participation and by alliances.
5. Provide useful workforce and citizens to society.
6. Educate students about Pakistan ideology and Islam.
7. Global village and geographic scenario must be inculcated into student’s minds.
8. He can promote social awareness and civic sense.
9. Give admission to children regardless of their status, and make advertisement according to rules and regulation. 

Other capabilities of educational leader

1. Leader in teaching content and methodology.
2. Provider of a fine teaching material.
3. Best manager and having best managing qualities.
4. Accept new changes.
5. Train his second line leadership for future.
6. Be a coach of students, teachers and develop their abilities.
7. Create an environment of fine morality and professionalism.
8. Use communication skills and know inter-personal communication.
9. In objectives, aims, research and evaluation seeks the best.

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Functions of Educational Administration

We described five functions of educational administration such as planning, organizing, commanding, coordination and controlling which control education system.

Planning

Planning is an intellectual activity which is performed on the basis of facts, ideas and principles. Activities are planned so that the objectives for which it has come to existence can be achieved.

Organizing

Organizing means arrangement, inter-relationship and order among people, material, procedure, knowledge and the work to be done.

Commanding

Commanding or directing involves the execution of plans and decisions and makes staff to perform their responsibilities efficiently.

Coordinating

Coordinating educational administration requires harmonizing in a unified manner all the elements involved in the programmed. It seeks the cooperation of all involved in the administration.

Relations management and administration

Management and administration are considered synonym but actually management is a whole and administration is simply a part of it. The use of word management is modern context, whereas administration is old concept.

Management is a total of four elements whereas administration is a part and based on and deals in controlling. Administrator deals with these four elements at a time in some cases. To observe them separately is difficult. Supervision and inspection are the tools by which administration do the function of controlling and directing. According to modern view management works on higher level whereas administrator supervisor and inspector lend a helping hand to management for attainment of goals.

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Principles of Educational Management

 A teacher of some school, college or university must keep all these principles in mind.

1.       Principle of sharing responsibility

This signifies that programs should be undertaken jointly by teachers and administrator with authority equally shared among those participated in the process.

2.       Principle of equality

The administrator should look upon his or her colleagues as socially equal.

3.       Principle of freedom

People are at their best when they have freedom to exercise their power and talent. The power of critical thinking to arrive at proper decisions, which essential for education, can only e cultivated in an atmosphere of freedom.

4.       Principle of justice

All will be treated on the same footing and undue favor to some will not be given. Lack of justice breeds disgust and frustration among people.

5.       Principle of recognition of individual’s effort

This signifies that it is through efforts that new ideas are formulated and put into practice and therefore, it should be given due recognition.

6.       Principle of planning

This stresses that planning that planning should grow out of the recognized needs and interests of those who are affected by plan.

7.       Principle of flexibility

Democratic administration is always prepared for a change of approach or policy in case it is satisfied that such a change will yield better.

8.       Principle of dynamics

The administration should always be forward looking and moving towards better programs and policies.

9.       Principles of human relation

In functioning of good administration depends upon the ability of the administrator to create better personal relations among people engaged in administration.

10.   Principle of maintenance of standards of efficiency

This means making all efforts to maintain and improve standards of efficiency in every phase of education.

11.   Principle of leadership

As a leader of various groups, the administrator must possess qualities of leadership so that others may follow the person.

12.   Principle of appreciation

Since it is normal that the human beings like to be appreciated, a democratic administrator should appreciate good work and good output.

13.   Principle of evaluation

Success or failure of a program must be assessed so that changes in future policy and program can be incorporated.

14.   Principle of research

For the maintenance of standards, it is necessary to make provisions for research and follow a number of techniques, procedures and practices of research.

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